Effects of nuclear explosions
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| Nuclear weapons |
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The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories:[1]
- Blast—40–50% of total energy
- Thermal radiation—30–50% of total energy
- Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy (more in a neutron bomb)
- Residual radiation—5–10% of total energy
However, depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased. The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, air burst, or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced at blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.
When an air burst occurs lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects, as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used.[2]
The physical-damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives. However, the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees.
Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb's matter). This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion. Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the hypocenter. Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a fireball and if the burst is low enough, its often associated mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitudes, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.
In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion. This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. This was, however, quickly shown to be impossible, due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball.[3] Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumour for many years.
Contents[hide] |
[edit]Direct effects
[edit]Blast damage
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front." The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's 'soft' X-rays. However, within a fraction of a second the dense shock front obscures the fireball, and continues to move past it now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing the characteristic double pulse of light seen from a nuclear detonation, with the dip causing the double pulse due to the shock wave fireball interaction.[5] It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with radiometer instruments known asBhangmeters capable of determining the nature of explosions.
For air bursts at or near sea-level, between 50-60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the yield of the bomb. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to <1 air="" cent="" density.="" of="" p="" per="" sea-level="">
The effects of a moderate rain storm during an Operation Castle nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15% at all ranges.[6]
Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 kilopascals (kPa) (5.15 pounds-force per square inch or 0.35 atm). Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that 8 psi (55 kPa) was necessary to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures, this can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.[7]
The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the speed of sound in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behaviour of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference.[8][9][10] This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.
For each goal overpressure there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~10 psi (69 kPa), of pressure is extended over, is a GR/ground range of 0.4 km for 1 kiloton (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 megatons (Mt) of TNT. With the optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for 1 kiloton (kt) of TNT yield an altitude of burst of 0.22 km would be required, for 100 kt an altitude of 1 km; and for 10 megatons (Mt) of TNT an altitude of 4.7 km.
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the blast wave in air:
- Static overpressure, i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.
- Dynamic pressures, i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.
Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest hurricane.
Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the abdominal cavity, which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe hemorrhaging or air embolisms, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some eardrums would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
Blast Winds: The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
[edit]Thermal radiation
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of thermal radiation as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light. This is known as "Flash".[11] The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield.[2] Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly out ranges blast effects, like that observed in the multi-megaton range.[2] This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated.[2] Thermal radiation accounts for between 35-45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. However in urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast effect induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast-time bombing of Hiroshima.[12] Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined.[13] When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. Moreover, the noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.[14] Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm in modern times is unlikely after a Nuclear detonation.[15] This does not exclude fires from being started, but that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and that used in World War II era Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light, since this part of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns, however, may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The Height of burst, and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
Actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J/cm2, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
In Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, a tremendous firestorm developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominately 'flimsy' wooden materials.[12] A firestorm has gale force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not, however, a phenomenon peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during World War II. Despite regular fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, notably no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was utilized. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.
Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a fire storm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.[16]
As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Furthermore, depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker, such as charring wood,[17] or brighter, color, such as asphalt.[18] If such weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it scatters the flash, now reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions, under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scattering. Moreover, similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few, if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the suns infrared rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of J/cm2, along the slant/horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog nevertheless fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosions flash energy.[19]
[edit]Indirect effects
[edit]Electromagnetic pulse
Main articles: Electromagnetic pulse and Geomagnetically induced current
Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy electrons through Compton scattering. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the Earth's magnetic field at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere.
Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in conductive material such as aluminum foil; however, the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially integrated circuits, are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A Faraday cage doesn't offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons detonated at high-altitudes also cause geomagnetically induced current in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
[edit]Ionizing radiation
About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays, alpha particles and electrons moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the fissionand fusion reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.
The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion. It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with distance from the explosion.[20] Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kT (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it radioactive. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of radioactive contamination is known as nuclear fallout and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
Details of nuclear weapon design also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly Hiroshima bomb leaked far more neutrons than the implosion type 21 kt Nagasaki bomb because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.[21]
[edit]Earthquake
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor earthquake.[22] Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.[23]
[edit]Summary of the effects
The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws.[24][25][26][27] However advanced computer modelling of actual real world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land topography into account to ease calculation time and equation length. It must be kept in mind that the scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assumes amongst other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban terrain masking, e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and so on. These scaling laws are thus considered to present the most pessimistic weapon effects, or worse case scenarios.[28]
As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be utilized against countervalue city targets in a global Nuclear War are in the sub megaton range. With weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons increasingly becoming the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals.[29] US examples of which are the W76and W88 warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
Effects
|
Explosive yield / Height of Burst
| ||||
1 kT / 200 m
|
20 kT / 540 m
|
1 MT / 2.0 km
|
20 MT / 5.4 km
| ||
Blast—effective ground range GR / km
| |||||
Urban areas completely levelled (20 psi/140 kPa)
|
0.2
|
0.6
|
2.4
|
6.4
| |
Destruction of most civilian buildings (5 psi/34 kPa)
|
0.6
|
1.7
|
6.2
|
17
| |
Moderate damage to civilian buildings (1 psi/6.9 kPa)
|
1.7
|
4.7
|
17
|
47
| |
Railway cars thrown from tracks and crushed (0.63 [[kp/cm2]] = 62 kPa; values for other than 20 kT are extrapolated using the cube-root scaling)
|
≈0.4
|
1.0
|
≈4
|
≈10
| |
Thermal radiation—effective ground range GR / km
| |||||
0.5
|
2.0
|
10
|
30
| ||
0.6
|
2.5
|
12
|
38
| ||
0.8
|
3.2
|
15
|
44
| ||
1.1
|
4.2
|
19
|
53
| ||
Effects of instant nuclear radiation—effective slant range1 SR / km
| |||||
Lethal2 total dose (neutrons and gamma rays)
|
0.8
|
1.4
|
2.3
|
4.7
| |
Total dose for acute radiation syndrome2
|
1.2
|
1.8
|
2.9
|
5.4
| |
1) For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here, because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can simply be derived from slant range and burst altitude (Pythagorean theorem).
2) "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here to a total dose of one gray, "lethal" to ten grays. Note that this is only a rough estimate since biological conditions are neglected here.
Further complicating matters, under global Nuclear War scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the Cold War, major strategically important cities, like Moscow, and Washington are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton Multiple Independently targetable re-entry vehicles, in a cluster bomb or 'cookie cutter' configuration.[30] Some evidence for this is that it has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads.[31] The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize by ensuring their successful shoot down by Anti-Ballistic missiles than it is to ensure the successful interception of the threat when it is many smaller incoming warheads that are approaching. This strength in numbers advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by lower yielding warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender physics package size, than what would be possible from a much higher yielding warhead, while assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same, notable design exceptions being the advanced W88.[32] The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ‘layering’ (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneering by Philip J. Dolan and others.
[edit]Other phenomena
Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material.[11] However, the vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the inelastic collisions of the high speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which primarily contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of Blackbody radiation emitting in the soft X-ray region.[33]
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through buoyancy in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a vortex ring with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs.[34] This effect is known as a mushroom cloud.[11]
Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as trinitite.
At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.[35]
Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion itself; they are left by sounding rockets launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.[36]
The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain, debris is thought to do this by acting as Cloud condensation nuclei. During the city firestorm which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of marbles.[37] This was termed black rain, and has served as the source of a book and film by the same name. Black rain is not unusual following large fires, and is commonly produced by pyrocumulus clouds during large forest fires. The rain at Hiroshima on that day also carried with it nuclear weapon debris or fallout, as well as soot particles from the city firestorm.
The element einsteinium was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
A side-effect of the Pascal-B nuclear test during Operation Plumbbob may have resulted in the first man-made object launched into space. The so-called "thunder well" effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times earth's escape velocity, although the evidence remains subject to debate.
[edit]Survivability
Main article: Duck and Cover (film)
Main article: Nuclear bombs and health
This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout. Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the 50% chance of death from the blast extends out to ~8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.[38]
However to highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima,[39] Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of just 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due in most part to her position of residing in the lobby of the bank of Japan, a reinforced concrete building, at the time of the nuclear explosion.[40][41] In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo bank, next door to the bank of Japan, received lethal third degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within 2 seconds.[42]
[edit]See also
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nuclear explosion physics |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nuclear weapon tests |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Radiation health effects |
- Cold War
- Duck and Cover - a short educational film produced in 1951
- History of nuclear weapons
- List of nuclear tests
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- Nuclear bombs and health
- Nuclear testing
- Nuclear warfare
- Nuclear weapon
- Nuclear weapon design
- Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction
- Peaceful nuclear explosions
- Pluton missile
- Project Gnome
- Rope trick effect
- RT-15 missile
- Underwater explosion
[edit]References
 | This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (October 2008) |
- ^ "Nuclear Explosions: Weapons, Improvised Nuclear Devices". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
- ^ a b c dhttp://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg
- ^ http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00329010.pdf
- ^ http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/
- ^ http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html
- ^http://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954Effects of operation castle 1954 30:00 to 31:00
- ^http://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954Effects of operation castle 1954 31:00 to 32:00
- ^ http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects6.shtml
- ^ https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/blast.htm
- ^ http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/machstem.shtml video of the mach 'Y' stem, note that it is not a phenomenon unique to nuclear explosions, conventional explosions also produce it.
- ^ a b c "Nuclear Bomb Effects". The Atomic Archive. solcomhouse.com. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
- ^ a b http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4421057 MEDICAL EFFECTS OF ATOMIC BOMBS THE REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMISSION FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF THE ATOMIC BOMB IN JAPAN VOLUME 1
- ^http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdfModeling the Effects of Nuclear Weapons in an Urban Setting
- ^http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100pg 26 Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter
- ^http://hps.org/hsc/documents/Planning_Guidance_for_Response_to_a_Nuclear_Detonation-2nd_Edition_FINAL.pdf Page 24 of Planning Guidance for response to a nuclear detonation. Written with the collaboration of FEMA & NASA to name a few agencies.
- ^http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100pg 304 Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter
- ^ Shadow Imprinted on an Electric Pole at the Foot of Meiji Bridge from Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum - Virtual Museum
- ^ "Various other effects of the radiated heat were noted, including the lightening of asphalt road surfaces in spots which had not been protected from the radiated heat by any object such as that of a person walking along the road. Various other surfaces were discolored in different ways by the radiated heat." From the Flash Burn section of The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a report by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946
- ^http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter
- ^ Pattison, J.E., Hugtenburg, R.P., Beddoe, A.H. and Charles, M.W. (2001), Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies, Radiation Protection Dosimetry95(2):125-136.
- ^ http://glasstone.blogspot.com/2006/03/samuel-glasstone-and-philip-j-dolan.html Nuclear weapons test effects: debunking popular exaggerations that encourage proliferation
- ^ http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017
- ^ http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=AOY9AQAAIAAJ&q=nuclear+weapon+scaling+laws&dq=nuclear+weapon+scaling+laws&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RAmiT5isC-j80QXn_pjPCA&redir_esc=y The nuclear arms race: technology and society 1990 pg 258
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=NO3626AOL9oC&pg=PA644&dq=nuclear+weapon+scaling+laws&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RAmiT5isC-j80QXn_pjPCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=nuclear%20weapon%20scaling%20laws&f=falseNew Scientist 14 Sep 1961 Nuclear weapon scaling laws
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=nuclear+weapon+scaling+laws&source=bl&ots=oIyQxbM7gW&sig=nBq4ztYfqeaOiPWHZDBUDh_GUEk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0f2hT7_tDOLO0QXKr9XeCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=nuclear%20weapon%20scaling%20laws&f=falsePhysics and Nuclear Arms Today (Readings from Physics Today)
- ^ http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html#nfaq5.15.6.2
- ^http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdfModelling the effects of Nuclear weapons in an urban setting 2011
- ^ http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html The modern Russian Bulava SLBM is armed with warheads of 100 - 150 kilotons in yield
- ^ https://www.fas.org/ota/reports/7906.pdf The Effects of Nuclear War, Office of Technology Assessment May 1979 pages 42 and 44. Compare the destruction from a single 1 megaton weapon detonation on Leningrad pn page 42 to that of 10 clustered 40 kiloton weapon detonations in a 'cookie cutter' configuration on page 44, note the unintuitive similar level of total destruction in both cases despite the total yield in the second attack scenario being less than half of that delivered in the 1 megaton case
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23#v=onepage&q=moscow&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.ie/books?id=x__CgnLTLqkC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=the+reason+for+MIRV&source=bl&ots=H_jj7VY9LU&sig=PQLTFEPy3U3BlJZTYQQFpL_C6Nw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CUf-T4z9HdGZhQfN55jqBg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=the%20reason%20for%20MIRV&f=falseFirst Strike!: The Pentagon's Strategy for Nuclear War By Robert C. Aldridge pg 65
- ^ http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 1977 CHAPTER II: Descriptions of Nuclear Explosions, Scientific Aspects of Nuclear Explosion Phenomena. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of several times 10^7 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature is a phenomenon that depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is simply due to kinetic energy.
- ^ Photo
- ^ An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE
- ^ Nuclear Weapon Archive
- ^ Hersey, John. “Hiroshima“, The New Yorker, August 31, 1946.
- ^ http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr3.gif
- ^ http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr1.gif
- ^http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/testimony_e/testimo07.htmlHiroshima Witness interview
- ^ http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hibakusha/Akiko.shtml
- ^ http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/museum/index.php?l=e&no=1000
[edit]External links
- Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects – Comprehensive video archive
- Underground Bomb Shelters
- The Federation of American Scientists provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects
- The Nuclear War Survival Skills is a public domain text and is an excellent source on how to survive a nuclear attack.
- Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city
- Oklahoma Geological Survey Nuclear Explosion Catalog lists 2,199 explosions with their date, country, location, yield, etc.
- Australian Government database of all nuclear explosions
- Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
- NWA repository of blast models mainly used for the effects table (especially DOS programs BLAST and WE)
- Nuclear Weapon Effects Calculator - Javascript form to calculate blast, heat, and radiation effects of a given explosive yield.
- HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effects Simulator - Mashup of Google Maps and Javascript to calculate blast effects.
- NUKEMAP - Google Maps/Javascript effects mapper, which includes fireball size, blast pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.
- Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions
- Atomic Forum
- Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, United States Department of Defense & Energy Research and Development Administration Available Online
- Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources
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